On Their Own Terms
How Informal Settlement Residents Interpret Urban Inclusion and Exclusion Within the Context of Participatory Mechanisms
Elmond Bandauko (Cornell Mui Ho Center for Cities), Akosua Boahemaa Asare (University of Western Ontario), Desmond Adjaison (University of Western Ontario) & Godwin Arku (University of Western Ontario)
Introduction
Cities in the Global South are characterised by the rapid expansion of informal settlements. Informal settlements are urban communities where most people build homes and live without formal approval from government authorities. Residents in these communities often lack access to basic infrastructure and services such as clean water, proper sanitation and electricity. At the same time, they face a constant struggle for inclusion in urban governance and decision-making processes. To address some of these challenges, governments, policymakers and urban planners promote participatory mechanisms – community meetings, local councils, and consultations – as tools to ensure that marginalized communities have a say in shaping their neighborhoods. But do these mechanisms genuinely lead to meaningful inclusion, or are they just tokenistic gestures? This question inspired us to conduct a study in Nima and Old Fadama, Accra’s largest informal settlements. To answer this question, we interviewed residents of Nima and Old Fadama – a deprived informal settlement. Our primary goal was to understand how residents of these places interpret urban inclusion and exclusion in the context of existing participatory mechanisms. Our research reveals a troubling reality: while participatory mechanisms exist on paper, they often fail to translate into real power for residents. Instead, participation is frequently dominated by local elites, political actors, and traditional leaders, sidelining the very people these initiatives claim to empower. This gap between rhetoric and reality raises crucial questions about who truly holds power in the city and whether current urban governance frameworks genuinely address the needs of deprived informal settlement dwellers. In the following sections, we discuss some of the key insights from our study.
The Limits of “Having a Voice” in decision-making and participatory processes
For many residents of Nima and Old Fadama, urban inclusion means having a voice in decision-making. When people participate in community meetings or engage with local government representatives, they expect their input to shape policies that affect their daily lives. However, our findings suggest that merely being present in participatory spaces does not necessarily lead to meaningful change. Residents described a common pattern: government officials hold consultations; invite select community leaders and then proceed with pre-determined plans that do not reflect the needs and aspirations of informal settlement residents. As one resident put it, “They just come in and construct whatever they choose.” This top-down approach perpetuates urban exclusion, reinforcing the power imbalances that have historically marginalized informal settlements.
Whose voice matters? The Role of Political and Social Elites
Our study demonstrates that even when participatory platforms exist, access to them is highly unequal in Nima and Old Fadama. In both settlements, participation is often mediated through political structures and traditional leadership. This raises the question: Whose interests are truly represented in urban governance processes? Many of our study participants expressed frustration that their voices are filtered through local elites, such as chiefs, local council members, and politically connected individuals. These figures often have vested interests, using their influence to advance personal agendas while ignoring broader community needs. Political affiliations also play a significant role, with residents aligned to the ruling party receiving preferential treatment, while others feel ignored or excluded. This dynamic is not unique to the City of Accra. Across the Global South, in cities like Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Mumbai (India) and Johannesburg (South Africa), most informal settlements have witnessed similar patterns where local governance structures are captured by local elites, who advance personal interests and thereby undermining the transformative potential of participatory processes. Instead of fostering urban inclusion, these mechanisms often reinforce existing hierarchies, leaving informal settlement residents disillusioned and disengaged.
The Reality of Urban Exclusion: Infrastructure Neglect and Everyday Struggles
The consequences of exclusion are tangible and deeply felt. In Old Fadama, residents experience chronic infrastructure neglect, with limited access to water, sanitation, and electricity. Some participants described feeling like “outsiders in Accra”, despite living in the city for decades. This form of “infrastructure violence”—where lack of investment in basic services systematically marginalizes certain communities—mirrors patterns seen in informal settlements worldwide. From Dharavi in Mumbai to Kibera in Nairobi, informal settlement residents face similar struggles, highlighting a global failure to integrate informal communities into urban planning and governance frameworks. This has significant implications on whether we will achieve our collective vision of inclusive cities as articulated in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11.
Rethinking Participatory processes for an inclusive urban future
Our research in Nima and Old Fadama highlight significant lessons for policymakers, planners and development practitioners beyond Accra. We conclude that if existing participatory mechanism in informal settlements are to be effective, they must go beyond ‘symbolic inclusion’ and ensure that residents have genuine decision-making power. Informal settlement residents must be ‘shapers’ and not just ‘consumers’ of urban development outcomes. For this to happen, participatory mechanisms must be open to all residents, and not just local elites. Globally, informal settlements have a rich history of self-organization. Therefore, it is important for governments to recognise and support grassroots-based governance structures that reflect the actual priorities of residents. Informal settlements are not just marginalized spaces—they are vibrant communities filled with people who know their own needs best. If urban governance is to be truly inclusive, cities must listen to and act upon the voices of those who live the daily realities of exclusion. By challenging who gets a voice in the city, we can begin to build a future where participatory governance is not just a buzzword, but a pathway to genuine urban inclusion.
Elmond Bandauko (PhD) is a postdoctoral associate in Just and Equitable Cities at the Cornell Mui Ho Center for Cities, Cornell University. Elmond is an interdisciplinary urban scholar whose research revolves around three themes: (i) urban informality, (ii) urban inclusion and exclusion, and (iii) built environment and quality of life (including issues such as sense of place, sense of community, etc.). Elmond's work is published in different journals such as Political Geography, Geoforum, Habitat International, Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, Cities, Housing Studies, Area, International Planning Studies, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, Urban Research and Practice, Land Use Policy, Journal of Urban Affairs, Gender, Place and Culture among others. Elmond's research has been funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), and the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research (IJURR) Foundation. He has contributed to the UN-Habitat World Cities Reports (WCR), including chapters on urban poverty and inequality and resilient urban economies for the 2022 version. For the 2024 WRC, Elmond co-authored a chapter on climate action and vulnerable urban populations.
Akosua Boahemaa Asare is a PhD candidate in the Department of Geography and Environment at Western University. Her main research interests include addressing spatial inequalities in access to urban services, financing urban infrastructures, urban governance, and issues relating to urban households’ vulnerability and resilience. She has a master's degree in City and Regional Planning from Cornell University.
Desmond Adjaison is a PhD student in the Department of Geography and Environment at Western University. He is an early career Climate Change & Sustainability Researcher with the goal of driving system change for a resilient future through skills in Urban Climate Policy Assessment, Resilience Planning and Institutional Innovations.
Godwin Arku (PhD) is a Professor in the Department of Geography and Environment, University of Western Ontario. Godwin's research spans “urban” and “economic” sub-division of human geography, especially as they relate to the transformation of urban systems in a changing global environment. He is also interested in issues of third world development. Specific areas of present research interests are regional and local economic development policy and planning, urban development and policy analysis, immigrants integration and development issues.